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I have officially completed my final semester in school and have received my Bachelors Degree! I thought it would be appropriate to share my final paper with the world. If for some reason it is ever used as reference, I expect full citations and credit for it! :)

The Influence of Synchromism

Jackie Porter

In 1916, the Anderson Galleries in New York held “The Forum Exhibition of Modern American Painters.” Organized by Willard Huntington Wright, author and critic, along with an organizing committee of influential artists such as Alfred Steiglitz and Robert Henri, this exhibition showcased what was believed to be the “very best examples of the more modern American Art.” Seventeen American artists showcased 193 works in which best exemplified the representation of ideal artwork to “turn public attention…from European Art.” This helped to continue interest that was established by the Armory show in 1913. As said by Wright in a letter written to artist Morgan Russell, “After the Armory Show, it will be the most talked of exhibition ever given here…” Although this was later known as a landmark event for modern art that included well established American artists, it was originally planned as a Synchromist exhibition, a radical art movement founded by Willard’s brother, Stanton MacDonald Wright and fellow artist Morgan Russell, Americans in Paris of 1913.[1]

The mere aspect of having an exhibit dedicated to Synchromism shows that there was some importance regarding it. Also, the matter that it is still mentioned in the broad spectrum of art history helps to signify it in a particular way. The debate at hand however, is why does Synchromism matter? Synchromism originally stemmed off of Morgan Russell’s and Stanton MacDonald-Wright’s desire to create and explore form using only color, absent from line structure. They also desired to create a new art movement because of the quick succession of innovation that was occurring in Paris at the time. Playing on the idea of musical chords and harmonies, these two artists created the term based on the idea of a musical “symphony” which in turn alluded to the new art movement of Synchromy, meaning “with color.”[2] This artistic development stemmed from a rationalization of color theories that created a new adaption in the ideas of color and abstract art. This also came about based on MacDonald-Wright’s interest in the alluring qualities of paint itself. He then drew inspiration from the fluid painting techniques of Turner, Renoir and Cezanne who all created abstract in the form of beautiful color and movement in their works. It is also noteworthy to account that the idea of color was wildly popular at this time and went on to impact art even after Synchromism came and went.[3] Synchromism also is said to have embraced the aesthetic aspirations of these artists including Delacroix and the Cubists which looked towards making color organic in the process of artistic creation. Synchromism, however, explored the use of color to expand into luminoscity as an experimental factor.[4] It also greatly differs from Cubism in the way that the technical methodologies differ in definition which is the basis for each movement’s creation.

For the most part, opinions during this time period greatly differed from that of other time periods (like today) that have been desensitized to the ever evolving world. Abstract art styles of the time, like Synchromism, were lumped into one category that viewers at the time were uninterested in due to their differences in what was average and common. Minds were not as open to artistic expansion in the early 1900’s.

Synchromism: Paris and Beyond

Upon his arrival in Paris in the fall of 1909, MacDonald-Wright found himself in the pinnacle of artistic development in the ways of art and painting. He took this opportunity to submerge himself in the artistic lifestyle of early 20^th Century Paris. It was later that both Russell and MacDonald-Wright began exploration into this new idea from 1912-1913 by using compositions and color as the basis to their works. The actual realization of Synchromism is quite a debatable affair as it was supposedly coined by Russell in an attempt to find a name for a salon entry of 1913 but was also argued to have been originally thought of as an original idea by Orphists and the Robert Delauney camp.[5]

As said in an interview conducted with Stanton MacDonald-Wright in 1964, both Stanton and Morgan Russell studied in Paris with Percyval Tudor-Harte. Stanton described him as “…stark raving mad, a man very much interested in color.” He also said that the three of them were very experimental with color and worked with a “chrome psychological basis” which was a representation of emotion, feeling and mental capabilities through color and color theory. Macdonald-Wright also said that although Tudor-Harte had an “intuitive grasp on color possibilities,” he was not a skilled painter and was unable to put his own color theories to use. Instead, Tudor-Harte related them to the 12 notes on the chromatic scale of the piano and passed on his ideas to MacDonald-Wright and Russell to test.[6]

He also was unconvinced about color theory in the way of physicists and believed that color and sound were a perception of psychological validations of color theory. He began experimentation with the analysis of spectral band colors which involved the inspection of the relationships of noise and light. The color wheel was used in parallel to musical theories in the basis of scale building. A tonic color was chosen for the basis of the scale and moved in intervals through the scale in the same way as a musical scale (i.e. a major scale moving in the basis of its own theory as whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, half step). South’s book about these theories gives the best example explaining how the scale of red would work. The order would move as such: red, orange, yellow, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet and then red-violet.[7] Tudor-Harte’s theory then read as such, “the pitch in music equaled luminosity in color, tone equaled hue and intensity in music…equaled saturation or purity in color.”[8] Theories aside, this created a basis for the artistic creations of Synchromism.

Russell and MacDonald-Wright also looked to give color a “formal and compositional significance” to stray away from decorative qualities that were seen in works by painters at the time. They used smaller brushstrokes to set up the picture plane and then complementary colors to set off the intensity of the composition. Color became the “totality” of their artwork and became the basis for the expressive qualities of their artwork.[9] Color and expressivity were profound ways of thinking in a time that definite representations of images were the way of creating art. Color totality as introduced in Willard Huntington Wright’s book, creates a new definition for the way that color was explored, used and defined. Although, Wright’s opinions on the basis of Synchromism may be biased (he is brother to Stanton MacDonald-Wright and promoter of Synchromism), this definition of color helps to cement the unique qualities of the art movement. Stylistically, this definition still holds truth in the way that color totality means that color was the basis for all things “Synchromist.”

MacDonald-Wright also drew great inspiration from the artistic aesthetic of Oscar Wilde’s prose which allowed for the interpretation of art as elegant and dynamic. Both Willard Wright and Stanton MacDonald Wright also were drawn to such aesthetic and unique qualities due to the influence of their upbringing in a wealthy lifestyle. They were not drawn to the ordinary and were looking for an outlet to create their own style and their own marks in the broad spectrum of art. It was of great importance to them to separate their style from that of others.

The Debate of Orphism

Allegedly, Synchromism was influenced by artists who studied and created works in the category of Orphism. A word created by Guillaume Apollinaire, Orphism was attributed to the works of such artists as Francois Kupka and Robert Delauney. Pieces from these artists were based on Cubism but explored more into the development of color vocabulary.[10] In comparison to Synchromism paintings, the emphasis of color is similar but Orphism creates a more Cubist visual scenery. In Robert Delauney’s “Ville de Paris” of 1912 (Fig. 1), there is a similarity between this and paintings done by the Synchromist artists but with much more extreme definition of space and line structure. There are many comparisons between Orphism and Synchromism from art critics and historians of Modern Art. Robert Hughes, a popular art critic even described MacDonald-Wright’s artwork as being similar to the works of Delauney. [11] MacDonald-Wright, however, scoffed at the idea of any such comparison and disagreed with popular commentary between the two art styles. He says “…we poked fun at Orphism and Delauney in spite of the fact that Delauney was a good friend of mine.”[12] He also believed that the reason why they were so often likened to one another was because they were the first to move away from the monochromatic colors of Cubism. MacDonald-Wright, particularly, wanted Synchromism to be able to establish itself as its very own art style and movement. Looking at art pieces created with this idea of Synchromism, it is very easy to agree that while they may look similar to other art pieces at the time, the basis of ideas that were behind Synchromism were unique in nature and thorough from a technique standpoint. It also set the bar for new experimentations in color and form; instead of creating a representational quality, these artists were creating new forms of mood, flow and design which evoked emotional qualities purely based on colors. Orphism also gave itself more credit than necessary in the way of unique artistic qualities as it looked more like a brightly colored subset of Cubism rather than its own new and unique movement. If anything, Synchromism can find its comparison by looks and color but not, in any way, by theory or line structure. This returns to the debate on how critics and everyday viewers of the time period looked at abstract styles of art in such a way that doesn’t allow for the expansion of any artistic creativity. Synchromism fell into that category of abstraction that wasn’t highly regarded or easily understood. Because of its many different similarities between itself and other styles, there was a gray area in interpretation without the basis of its creation and methodology.

Without any background information, however, would the general public really understand it? Without a lot of positive media attention focused on Synchromism, there was not ability for the general public to read very much into these works since there were not very many outlets for artistic education. There were also not many opportunities for people in the public of that time to get a chance to understand any artistic styles without substantial amounts of media or without substantial education in the area of art itself.

Synchromist Works

One of the earliest works exploring Synchromist ideas is MacDonald Wright’s “Portrait of John Dracopoli” (Fig. 2) which is painted in the key of orange. This painting was done by starting with orange as the first color note and then moving in intervals like the notes of a musical scale. Along with the harmonized scale, MacDonald-Wright used the warmth and coolness of the colors to create depth and perception in the portrait. While two colors are harmonized theoretically like a musical scale, each color was allowed to advance and recede into space based on warmth or coolness. Following Tudor-Harte’s theories, MacDonald-Wright created a color harmony, but also created mood, rhythm and flow. As being in the “key of orange,” emotional connection was meant to be obtained.[13] Although Tudor-Harte did not originally create an emotional distinction for this color, Macdonald-Wright did indeed intend for it to create an emotional meaning. He details, “Orange can be either loud or soft as a scale. It gives us the sensation of febrile gaiety, and quickness, or of soft, solid dignity. It is either mercurial or magisterial…If we paint a portrait in orange it must be of great dignity; its background must be rich and sonorous; its expression must be kindly, intelligent and frank, but never sentimental nor smirking.”[14] This could have been inspired by the intentions of Tudor-Harte originally. He related the feeling of melancholy darkness in the lower notes of A flat, A, B flat and B which complemented blues and violets. The bright and cheerful notes (D sharp, E and F) complemented yellow-orange, yellow and yellow-green.[15]

Qualities such as the definitions of color help to solidify the differences of Synchromism aside from any other art movement up to this time period. Emotional connotations to colors also created significance between Synchromism because there was no such definition in other areas. While there may have been an allusion of such definitions, there were no exact explanations from the artists themselves in other artistic ventures. Any such definition may have been given as an afterthought. Color as an emotional factor is also a natural sense that viewers have with paintings that helps to establish a sense of what the piece may mean or what the feeling invokes. However, interestingly enough, the world had less color involved in daily life at the time than it does today. Clothing, décor, and even artwork were much less filled with color, so therefore, color on a grand scale, such as what Synchromism represented, meant a lot more than it would today, about one hundred years later.

Along with MacDonald-Wright, Morgan Russell explored painting in color scales and keys but did not use “advancing and receding colors with the same accuracy of MacDonald-Wright”.[16] Russell explored the same stylized concept, but with less representational qualities such as in his work “Synchromy in Orange: To Form,” ca. 1914 (Fig. 3), which explores a much more abstract quality than MacDonald Wright’s portrait of John Dracopoli. Russell explores a new implication of color theory. He states, “In order to resolve the problem of a new pictorial structure, we have considered light as intimately related chromatic waves and have submitted the harmonic connections between colors to a closer study.” [17] He goes on to say that by the use of “color rhythms” in the painting that created a time span like a musical piece, the “old painting,” instead, existed in space.[18] Russell began to shy away from the methods set up by Synchromism and was much more flexible with his use of colors. He was more interested in his composition and what would better complement it as a whole and looked towards new ways of color expression that was consistent with the ever evolving expansion of art in Paris of this time.[19] While color became the new “craze” in artwork, Russell’s abandonment of the movement was natural.

Synchromism and Synesthesia

In is notable to dissect other examples leading up to the movement of Synchromism by exploring an abstract, and scientific, idea called synesthesia. Synesthesia was explored by artists but on a less mathematical scale. It is explained as “…a stimulus received in one sensory modality that gives rise to an experience in another.”[20] The idea of “color music”, which creates the basis for Synchromism, has been studied from a scientific perspective. One such study was conducted by Leon Ginsberg of Columbia University and was published in 1923. Ginsberg says, “…’Synesthesia’ has been used so loosely that is has led to confusion. The two leading theories…have adherents, just because of this blanket term for two phenomena.”[21] In other words, Ginsberg likened Synesthesia to a scientific theory that many people did not fully understand and was likely to be interpreted incorrectly. Some may regard synesthesia incorrectly because of the visual stimulus that differs from person to person that is due to imagination. One person who is much more creative and able to imagine things more vividly than another is natural but the idea of synesthesia is not. This is why it was such an interesting idea to explore on a musical and artistic level.

Alexander Scriabin created pieces based on his theories of “colored hearing” by adding color dimensions to his live performances of “Prometheus,” a musical piece known as the “Poem of Fire.” In this work he included a “color organ,” which was constructed as a keyboard that would produce not only sound, but projected colors as well.[22] This matter is important to explore when speaking of Synchromism because there is a possibility that synesthesia created another inspiration for the art movement. While none of the artists claimed to have experienced synesthesia, or Scriabin’s live performances, Synchromism could be attributed as a visual representation of the matter at hand. The phenomenon of synesthesia was debated but it was significant because of the “color-tonal analogies” that Scriabin created along with the color scales that were created by the Synchromists. While neither of these separate movements achieved fame they had intended to, Scriabin’s works were unique and profound ways of creating a visual representation of music and mood similar to that of Synchromist ideas.[23] Tudor-Harte’s original ideas evoked this emotional quality.

These scientific theories created a correlation between the supposed sensation of synesthesia and Synchomy as an art movement and idea. As Russell and MacDonald- Wright expanded upon their new art technique, more interest ensued in the pieces they created. Between 1912 and 1913, they made large progress in the establishment of their style. By June of 1913, they secured an exhibition in Munich at the Neue Kunstsalon. It is said that the artists had hand colored posters printed for the exhibition that proved to be so popular that they were stolen from public display. (Fig. 4) The show, while creating press and popularity for the artists, was much less successful in sales.[24]

Press and Further Developments

Most press about these artists, however, proved to be increasingly negative. In Paris, art critic Andre Salmon wrote, “…Synchromism is the worst of backward movements, a vulgar art, without nobility, unlikely to live as it carries the principles of death itself.”[25] However, this criticism did not keep away attendants of MacDonald- Wright and Russell’s Paris show at the Bernheim Jeune Gallery in Paris which was much more highly regarded. However, Synchromism was still attacked as a plagiarism on Orphism. While these critics denied the styles of Synchromism, their opinions, specifically Andre Salmon’s, were extremely one sided and an excellent example of how difficult it was to establish something new and profound. At the time, the one sided arguments against Synchromism were clearly not the opinion of the public who were most likely, not the attendants at the show. Those who were most interested in the advertisements and posters for the show itself were common people who were most likely not the target audience intended. In regards to plagiarism of Orphism, there is a definite knowledge that those who argued with the similarity, were not educated in the matter of what Synchromism represented and only allowed for further promotion of the art movement. Nonetheless, MacDonald-Wright attempted to continue on.

After the death of his father in 1913, MacDonald-Wright returned to the United States and in the spring of 1914 and another Synchromist show was exhibited in the Caroll Galleries in New York City. This exhibition brought in good news for the art movement of Synchromism but then lacking financially, MacDonald-Wright was still in for hard circumstances. It is said that although Stanton, and his brother Willard Huntington-Wright lived extravagant lifestyles, their father only left them a dollar a piece in his will. Stanton also received intense criticism from friends of Morgan Russell for his exhibition in New York City since they believed he was claiming credit for the movement without giving recognition to Russell. However, he smoothed over the situation with Russell and continued to collaborate with him.[26]

Willard and Stanton returned to Paris and London in 1914 while the Synchromist styles progressed into what was later labeled as “Advanced Synchromism.” This takes the basic, original ideas of Synchromism but allowed a broader span for composition. As mentioned previously, Morgan Russell’s “Synchromy in Orange: To Form” (Fig. 3) was a characteristic piece of Synchromism, but was also a representation of the evolution into Advanced Synchromy.

With broad and distinct patterning, Russell expanded upon Synchromism and elaborated the space, depth and abstract qualities of style while still using similar techniques for composition. South once again explains the slight shift into this section of Synchromism: “…categorization of those paintings in which the entirety of Synchromist theory was consciously applied…where optical properties of color established…distances, where color itself was uses as a basis of form, where principal rhythm was used as the basis of the composition and where the use of color scales and overall formal and psychological unity among these elements was attempted.”[27]

March of 1916 brought the organization of the Anderson Galleries’ exhibition sponsored by Forum magazine. Morgan Russell joined the Wrights by exhibiting such pieces in the show such as “Cosmic Synchromy” painted from 1913-1914, in which he says, “…I was concerned with the elimination of the natural object and with the retention of color rhythms…The principle idea in this canvas is a spiral plunge into space, quickened by appropriate color contrasts.”[28] (Fig. 5) This specific piece marked the movement of Russell towards a less restricted form that was no longer based on the luminosity but as an expression of color that created “form which would be as complete and as simple as a Michelangelo drawing, and which would give subjectively the same emotion of form that the Renaissance master gave objectively.” [29] It was shortly after this exhibition that Russell went into a different artistic direction in his paintings and artwork.

Meanwhile, Stanton stuck with his similar works and in March of 1917, he was able to land an exhibition with Alfred Stieglitz, famed art collector and owner of well known “291,” the simply titled gallery that sat at 291 Fifth Avenue in New York City that he used to display relatively unknown American artists starting in 1908.[30] Steiglitz also was well known as a forerunner in the “modern” collection and promotion of art in the United States meaning that, artwork that was shown and favored by him could thereafter go down in history with its own mark on the spectrum of influential modern artworks. After the show, Stanton gave Steiglitz a painting in appreciation. MacDonald Wright said, “When I tried to give Stieglitz a picture after my show with him, he told me with tears in his eyes, that I was the only man who had offered him something without pay since the opening of ‘291!’”[31]

Although the “craze” of Synchromism had subsided and Stanton moved onto other areas and development of artwork, he eventually became the Regional Director of the Federal Arts Project in Southern California from 1935-1940.[32] Many years after his death, however, Synchromism was brought back into the attention of the art world in a 2001 exhibition titled, “Color, Myth and Music: Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Synchromism.” This exhibition featured more than 60 of his original works that spanned six decades as well as other paintings created in his final years of life.[33]

Synchromism: Influence and Impact

Now to return to the matter at hand: Why does Synchromism matter? Will South explores this matter by stating specifically that Russell and MacDonald-Wright were two out of several artists who elaborated on the expression of color and mandated the importance of its use. Before Synchromism, color wasn’t as widely regarded in the matter of application, texture and scale and color theory was allowed to be expanded upon. He also states that before this time period (turn of the 20^th century), color took a backseat to design in artwork.[34] Synchromism blew the notion of subtle color completely out of the water. This color theory allowed new ideas about use in others’ artwork and even helped to develop the styles of artists such as Thomas Hart Benton, Georgia O’Keefe and Arthur Dove. It also elaborated on the idea of expressive qualities of color, line and form and even the influence of music that Synchromism put forth.

Synchromism also allowed a new freedom of color experimentation which included an expansion of what was started by the Impressionists well before this art movement.[35] Although Synchromy started out as a specific theoretical art technique, its images now created inspiration for new styles of artwork in resemblance. Although this art movement was passed over greatly and written off as an unimportant idea, it allows for the education of art methodology and appreciation for such art movements that also follow specific guidelines and creative aspects. Synchromism also opened the doors for much larger and more “famous” art movements such as Abstract Expressionism. Abstract Expressionism, although concerned with the subconscious mind, held a group of artists who experimented in the same way as Synchromists, turning their studios into laboratories to work with new ideas with their creative processes. [36]

In “modern” time periods, Synchromism does not exist in its original form but did indeed influence greater art projects and movements in more modern scenarios. Stanton MacDonald-Wright, specifically, created several other works that were highly regarded, such as his involvement in the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Art Project between 1934 and 1943 in Southern California. He also continued on to create artwork, exhibit, teach and write about his experiences. MacDonald-Wright also no longer desired to be a profound symbol in the way of modernist art based on his disdain for the Abstract Expressionism movement and those that followed. He also began to lack creativity and went through “conceptual bouts of weakness.”[37] His art pieces turned to a more illustrative quality but still contained his unique mastery of color and form. It is safe to say that Synchromism was well gone before World War II and by that time, new expressive qualities in the art world were created.

Methodology aside, the artwork created by Synchromist artists created new visual representations that helped to advance modern art in the turn of the 19^th and 20^th centuries as a whole. Like many abstract artworks and pieces, there was quite a bit of misunderstanding that persuaded viewers and critics to reject the artwork based on what was, or is, popular at the time. There is a great and profound respect developed to those who hope to create a new and unique form of art or art movement. Looking at popular artworks at the time of Synchromism that came out of the Armory Show of 1913 in New York City, most pieces, aside from Cubist abstraction, were mostly representational pieces which were tame, and friendly for the public’s viewing. Synchromism worked against these ideas of representation to expand the viewers’ minds in the area of abstraction. This, indeed, fulfilled the original intentions perpetuated by the Synchromists.

Conclusion

Synchromism mattered for the grand scheme of art history because it marked the new development in the usage of color that has since expanded into the daily life of those living in modern times. Whether it is art creation or a simple task such as color selection for one’s daily clothing, color creativity has become such an integral part to life. Colors’ emotional qualities are also extremely important to people today in the ways of decoration. Without the idea of color expansion, like that was done in Synchromism, the world would have a much less colorful palette.

The development of abstract art movements have been much more common in the past 100 years (1912-2012) which has been extremely important to the development of art history. While Synchromism represents a very small portion of these developments, it still holds a place in time that helped to add to the overall expansion of modern art that is known, and created, today. Artists such as Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Morgan Russell allowed for the development of new ideas. Although there may not be many people who have attributed their own artworks’ inspiration to the original ideas set forth by Synchromism, that doesn’t mean that it didn’t create an influence for color and artistic development.

It is also noteworthy to mention, that although an art movement, piece or artist may not rise to high levels of fame and success, their artwork still may hold an important role in the development of art as a whole. Synchromism can be a great leading example for this by being a noteworthy enough movement that may not have been as successful as the artists and creators had intended. While they might not have been around to know that their creative art movement mattered, it did create an impact on art overall.

[1] Agee, William C. “Willard Huntington Wright and the Synchromists: Notes on the Forum exhibition.” Archives of American Art Journal. 1990: 88-91

[2] Zilczer, Judith. “Color Music: Synesthesia and Nineteenth-Century Sources for Abstract Art.” Artibus et Historiae. 1987: 101-126.

[3] South, Will. Color, Myth and Music: Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Synchromism. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Museum of Art, 2001.

[4] Wright, Willard Huntington. Modern Painting: Its Tendency and Meaning.” New York, NY: John Lane Company, 1915.

[5] South

[6] Oral History: Interview with Stanton MacDonald Wright, 1964. April 13-September 16, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institute.

[7] South

[8] South

[9] Wright

[10] Chip, Herschel B. “Orphism & Color Theory.” The Art Bulletin. 1958: 55-63.

[11] South

[12] Oral History

[13] South

[14] Stanton MacDonald-Wright, A Treatise on Color, Los Angeles, 1924.

[15] South

[16] South

[17] Zilczer

[18] Zilczer

[19] South

[20] Harrison, John and Simon Baron-Cohen. “Synaesthesia: An Account of Coloured Hearing.”

Leonardo. 1994: 343-346.

[21] Ginsberg, Leon. “A Case of Synaesthesia.” The American Journal of Psychology. 1923: 582-589

[22] Harrison

[23] Galeyev , B.M and I.L. Vanechkina. “Was Scriabin a Synesthete?” Leonardo. 2001: 337-361.

[24] South

[25] South

[26] South

[27] South

[28] South

[29] Wright

[30] Hamilton, George Heard. “The Alfred Stieglitz Collection.” Metropolitan Museum Journal. 1970: 371-192.

[31] South

[32] Oral History

[33] “Color, Myth and Music: Stanton McDonald Wright.” In Depth Art News.

http://www.absolutearts.com/artnews/200108/06/28959.html. (accessed April 5, 2010).

[34] South

[35] Gardiner, Henry G. Color and Form 1909-1914. San Diego, CA: Fine Arts Gallery of San Diego, 1971.

[36] Hobbs, Robert C. “Early Abstract Expressionism and Surrealism.” Art Journal. 1985:299-302

[37] South

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